Psychedelic Drugs & Kundalini

Our present understanding of hallucinogenic drugs is both complicated and confusing. This is due largely to the turbulent history of these drugs. Originally, they were greeted by the psychological community as a means of chemically inducing schizophrenia [2], a notion that still persists (c.f. [3] ). During this initial period, these drugs were called "psychomimetic" drugs, indicating their presumed ability to induces psychosis. However, the writings of avante garde intellectuals in the late 1950s and early 1960s painted a significantly different picture of hallucinogens, seeing in them a key to expanded states of consciousness and leading to experiences similar, if not identical to the teachings of ancient Eastern philosophy [4]. During this era, these drugs became known as "psychedelic" which literally means "mind manifesting"; in other words, the effects of psychedelics manifest through changes in the mind. Some psychologists were beginning to accept such a viewpoint as further work on human subjects progressed, revealing flaws in the logic of the psychomimetic paradigm, while simultaneously, the therapeutic uses of hallucinogens in a number of clinical psychiatric settings showed great promise [5]. Such a view, coupled with broad, positive media exposure by Timothy Leary and others led to a popular interest in hallucinogens in the mid to late 1960s, the so-called "psychedelic 60s", leading to wide spread use of hallucinogens. However, views of these drugs became ever more polarized as negative reports of LSD effects also emerged. Popular usage was met with alarmist reactions by mainstream medical and legal authorities due to exaggerated and unsubstantiated claims of dangers associated with LSD use [6]. By October of 1966, these drugs were made illegal in the United States. At present these drugs are still illegal in Western industrial nations and this has severely curtailed the scientific investigation of this class of compounds. According to Tart (1990), "basic research virtually stopped in this area in the early 1960s" [7]. This is true regarding the effects of these drugs on humans. Some animal research has continued to the present on the pharmacology and neurophysiology of these drugs. However, as of 1994, there is some good news; the FDA has approved the use of psychedelics in two human studies: one characterizing the effects of DMT, the other characterizing the effects of MDMA.

There is today a large, complex, and often contradictory, literature on hallucinogenic drugs. In this article I will try only to present a brief and highly abbreviated overview of our current knowledge about these compounds. There are two factors relevant to the current discussion: 1. conceptualizing the effects of hallucinogenic drugs and 2. understanding the mode of action of hallucinogens on the central nervous system (CNS). In general, it is reasonable to say, based on current evidence, that neither the effects of these drugs nor their mode of action has been successfully characterized. Let us look at each in turn.

The phenomenology of the hallucinogenic experience is extremely complex, operating, again, at physiological, sensory, emotional, cognitive, and we could say, spiritual, levels. Hallucinogenic induced alterations are so drastic from our normal states of consciousness, that, again, we may call the state induced by hallucinogens an ASC.

The physiological effects of hallucinogenic induced ASC are reasonably straight-forward: pupils dilate, heart rate increases, breathing patterns are altered, chills and tremors are experienced, spontaneous motor motions such as dance and gestures may result, and sleeping is significantly impaired. The controversy begins when we go beyond the obvious physiological symptoms of these drugs. At sensory, emotional and cognitive levels a wide variety of conflicting reports exist. Perhaps the easiest way to conceptualize the variety of views of the effects of hallucinogenic drugs is to realize that they lie along a spectrum.

At one extreme of this spectrum, the effects of hallucinogens are viewed in a negative light and thought of as a neuropathology; sensory alterations are called 'hallucinations', emotional changes are seen to be related to paranoia and the disjointed behavior of schizophrenics, and cognitive alterations are considered to be delusions. Thus, to some, all alterations caused by hallucinogens are considered subnormal or pathological.

At the opposite extreme of the spectrum, hallucinogenic effects are viewed in a positive light and associated with super-normal alterations in sensory, emotional and cognitive effects. The hallucinogen effects are associated with Eastern philosophy: LSD and related compounds can induce mystical experiences. They also enhance creativity, enhance the operation of the mind and emotions, and produce effects highly therapeutic for the psychological growth of the individual.

All views of hallucinogenic effects fall somewhere on this spectrum. Some of the reasons behind such a seemingly disparate range of views on the nature of hallucinogenic induced ASC are: the differing paradigms of various groups of researchers (i.e. psychomimetic verses psychedelic), different criteria used to define alterations in emotional or mental function, whether or not the researchers themselves have actually used hallucinogenic drugs, and wider societal and philosophic assumptions that affect researcher motives. Also, basic problems of scientific method come into question when attempting to ascertain hallucinogenic phenomenology. Yensen (1984) argues that because of the extreme effects of hallucinogens the standard double-blind protocols used in assessing most drugs simply does not apply to hallucinogens [8] This is because the researcher will always know which group has been given hallucinogens because it is obvious as to which subjects are affected. This is in contrast to say, studies of a blood pressure medication in which placebos and treatment groups cannot be distinguished by obvious means.

So, being cognizant of the spectrum of views of hallucinogens, can we at least saliently outline the effects of these drugs on humans? Obviously we cannot, for any view we take will fall somewhere on the above spectrum. It is inevitable that subjective value judgments enter into the assessment of the effects of hallucinogens. However, admitting to inevitable value judgments, some things can be stated.

For one, these drugs do cause the perception of some type of visual imagery - hence the name hallucinogen. The imagery itself is very difficult to describe in words: often fantastic, intricately beautiful and highly dynamic images of highly colored geometric patterns are superimposed over one's vision, and such imagery becomes massively intensified when one closes their eyes (Click here to see an example). Such imagery also possess the property of "things within things within things" as found, for example, in a fractal [9]. Walls, floors and other objects appear to "breathe". One perceives "trails" on moving objects, which are similar to the appearance of motion under a stroboscopic light. In spite of all these visual alterations, most of the time, the subject's normal vision still functions and these images are overlaid over the normal visual perceptions. There may be alterations in hearing and body sensations as well. In general, there is a heightening of sensory perception which are overlaid with some type of new imagery (i.e. a "hallucination") not of sensory origin.

At emotional and cognitive levels, hallucinogenic users become much more introspective and turned inwards on critical self-reflection. There may be loss of ego boundaries. Thoughts of profoundness and transcendence may occur. There is increased spontaneous free association, there may be either a lessening or heightening of concentration. There is a shift from logical, linear thinking to holistic intuitive thought. These are only some of the emotional and cognitive effects of hallucinogens.

One would think that perhaps with a knowledge of the mode of action of hallucinogens, that this would clarify the nature of their effects. It is known that hallucinogens chemically resemble various neurotransmitters. For example, LSD resembles serotonin [10] (also called 5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) and mescaline resembles norepinephrine. Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter in various brain regions, and its source comes from neurons located in the brain stem, in clusters of neurons called the raphe nuclei [11] . The raphe nuclei are known to play an important role in regulating autonomic nervous system activity, regulating sleep-wake cycles, and states of arousal [12] . Evidence indicates that LSD alters serotonin neurotransmission, but the details are complicated by the fact that there are several types of serotonin receptors and LSD interacts differently with each. These serotonin receptors are distributed in a complex fashion throughout the brain, further complicating our understanding. It is also known that LSD has an effect on the pathways of nerve conduction of the eye. This is probably an indirect effect of LSD, mediated by its complex effects on neurotransmission in general. LSD decreases the response of a visual relay center known as the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) located in the thalamus [13,14]. The retina of the eye sends its nerve impulses to the LGN. The LGN then relays its signals to the occipital cortex which is also known as the primary visual cortex (also called Area 17). What LSD does is decrease the responsiveness of the LGN to input from the retina. Other hallucinogens affect the hypothalamus and its regulation of hormones [15] , or affect dopamine systems [16] or the norepinephrine system of the locus coruleus [11].

Now, how well do these actions help explain the effects of hallucinogens? The complex, and mostly unknown, effects on brainstem neurotransmission likely mediate both the physiological and psychological changes seen when on hallucinogens. However, hallucinogens that produce very similar psychological effects show significant differences in modes of action on neurotransmission, meaning that the neurochemistry of hallucinogenic effects is probably mediated through redundant and complex pathways. [17]. Regarding visual hallucinations, theories ranging from changes at the LGN to changes in the visual cortices have been proposed. In general, it is safe to say, and has been said quite recently[8,18], that the mode of action of hallucinogens is still not understood. This is really no surprise when we consider 1. how complex are the systems being affected by hallucinogenic drugs, and 2. the function of the brain in mediating higher cognitive function is still incompletely understood. Since hallucinogens affect higher cognitive functions so drastically, perhaps it is a case of putting the cart before the horse to expect our current knowledge of the action of these drugs to explain how they create cognitive alterations in humans. Quite the contrary, it seems very reasonable to suggest that an understanding of the mode of action of hallucinogens on higher cognitive function could reveal much about the brain's role in cognition.

In the Discussion section of this report I will offer some speculations about the mode of action of psychedelic drugs in the human brain based on the profile of psychological effects of these drugs, taking into account some of the most recent findings about brain function and psychology. Finally, let us keep in mind that the purpose of this report is to suggest that psychedelic drug effects are similar to the Tantric notion of awakened Kundalini. The main idea here being that as we unravel the "hows" of psychedelic drugs, we may also be unraveling the "hows" behind Kundalini Yoga.

References for Psychedelic Section

1.. Smith MV, (1981). Psychedelic Chemistry. Loompanics Unlimited. Port Townsend, Washington.

2. Bravo, G. and Grob, C. "Shamans, Sacraments, And Psychiatrists". Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs. 21(1), Jan-Mar, 1989, 123-8.

3. Vardy MM , Kay SR . LSD psychosis or LSD-induced schizophrenia? A multimethod inquiry. Archives of General Psychiatry :, 40(8):877-83, 1983 Aug.

4. Watts, A. The Joyous Cosmology. New York: Vintage Books, 1962.

Leary, T. "The Religious Experience: Its Production And Interpretation". Psychedelic Review. 1, 1964, 324-46.

Huxley A, The Doors of Perceptions. New York, Harper. 1954.

5. See Part VII, Therapeautic Applications in

Aaronson, B., and Osmond, H. (Eds.). Psychedelics. New York: Doubleday & Co. Inc., 1970.

6. Cohen MM, Shiloh Y. Genetic toxicology of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). [Review] In: 97, ed. Mutation Research :, 1977:

Also see Stevens, J. Storming Heaven: LSD And The American Dream. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. that discusses the hisroy of this era.

7. Tart C, (1990) Altered States of Consciousness, 3rd edition, Harper San Fransico. p 569.

8. Yensen R. LSD and Psychotherapy. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 17(4):267-77, 1985 Oct-Dec

9. Alan Watts says this (see 4 above) about acid hallucinations which sounds very much like he is describing fractals. Furthermore, check out his connection between the images that one is perceiving and the idea that one may be actually watching their own brain at work:

"Closed-eyed fantasies in this world (of ones hallucinations) seems sometimes to be revelations of the secret workings of the brain, of the associative and patterning processes, the ordering systems which carry out all our sensing and thinking. ...they are for the most part ever more complex variations on a theme: ferns sprouting ferns sprouting ferns in multidimensional spaces, vast kaleidoscopic domes of stained glass or mosaic, or patterns like the models of highly intricate molecules, systems of colored balls, each one of which turns out to be a multitude of smaller balls, forever and ever Is this perhaps, an inner view of the organizing process which, when our eyes are open, make sense of the world even at points where it appears to be supremely messy?" (parenthesis mine)

10. Pierce PA. Peroutka SJ. Antagonist properties of d-LSD at 5-hydroxytryptamine2 receptors. [Review] Neuropsychopharmacology. 3(5-6):503-8, 1990 Oct-Dec.

11. McCallRB *. Neurophysiological effects of hallucinogens on serotonergic neuronal systems. In:. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews :, 1982:

12. MorganePJ *, & SternWC *.The role of serotonin and norepinephrine in sleep-waking activity. National.. Institute.. on.. Drug.. Abuse:.. Research.. Monograph. Series. (3):37-61

13. Ruch-Monachon MA. Jalfre M. Haefely W. Drugs and PGO waves in the lateral geniculate body of the curarized cat. II. PGO wave activity and brain 5-hydroxytryptamine. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie. 219(2):269-86, 1976 Feb.

14. Williams JM. Distortions of vision and pain: two functional facets of D-lysergic acid diethylamide. Perceptual & Motor Skills. 49(2):499-528, 1979 Oct.

15. HorowskiR *, GrafKJ *. Neuroendocrine effects of neuropsychotropic drugs and their possible influence on toxic reactions in animals and man -- the role of the dopamine-prolactin system. In: Supplement, ed. Archives of Toxicology

16. AhnHS *, MakmanMH *. Interaction of LSD and other hallucinogens with dopamine-sensitive adenylate cyclase in primate brain: regional differences. In: 97, ed. Brain Research :, 1979:

17. Buckholtz NS. Zhou DF. Freedman DX. Potter WZ. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) administration selectively downregulates serotonin2 receptors in rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology. 3(2):137-48, 1990 Apr.

18. Van Woerkom, A.E. "The Major Hallucinogens And The Central Cytoskeleton: An Association Beyond Coincidence? Towards Subcellular Mechanisms In Schizophrenia". Medical Hypothesis. 31, 1990, 7-15.